Understanding Managerial Accounting Concepts

By Staff Reporters

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Product Costing and Valuation

Product costing deals with determining the total costs involved in the production of a good or service. Costs may be broken down into subcategories, such as variable, fixed, direct, or indirect costs. Cost accounting is used to measure and identify those costs, in addition to assigning overhead to each type of product created by the company.

Managerial accountants calculate and allocate overhead charges to assess the full expense related to the production of a good. The overhead expenses may be allocated based on the number of goods produced or other activity drivers related to production, such as the square footage of the facility. In conjunction with overhead costs, managerial accountants use direct costs to properly value the cost of goods sold and inventory that may be in different stages of production.

Marginal costing (sometimes called cost-volume-profit analysis) is the impact on the cost of a product by adding one additional unit into production. It is useful for short-term economic decisions. The contribution margin of a specific product is its impact on the overall profit of the company. Margin analysis flows into break-even analysis, which involves calculating the contribution margin on the sales mix to determine the unit volume at which the business’s gross sales equals total expenses. Break-even point analysis is useful for determining price points for products and services.

Cash Flow Analysis

Managerial accountants perform cash flow analysis in order to determine the cash impact of business decisions. Most companies record their financial information on the accrual basis of accounting. Although accrual accounting provides a more accurate picture of a company’s true financial position, it also makes it harder to see the true cash impact of a single financial transaction. A managerial accountant may implement working capital management strategies in order to optimize cash flow and ensure the company has enough liquid assets to cover short-term obligations.

When a managerial accountant performs cash flow analysis, he will consider the cash inflow or outflow generated as a result of a specific business decision. For example, if a department manager is considering purchasing a company vehicle, he may have the option to either buy the vehicle outright or get a loan. A managerial accountant may run different scenarios by the department manager depicting the cash outlay required to purchase outright upfront versus the cash outlay over time with a loan at various interest rates.

Inventory Turnover Analysis

Inventory turnover is a calculation of how many times a company has sold and replaced inventory in a given time period. Calculating inventory turnover can help businesses make better decisions on pricing, manufacturing, marketing, and purchasing new inventory. A managerial accountant may identify the carrying cost of inventory, which is the amount of expense a company incurs to store unsold items.

If the company is carrying an excessive amount of inventory, there could be efficiency improvements made to reduce storage costs and free up cash flow for other business purposes.

Constraint Analysis

Managerial accounting also involves reviewing the constraints within a production line or sales process. Managerial accountants help determine where bottlenecks occur and calculate the impact of these constraints on revenue, profit, and cash flow. Managers then can use this information to implement changes and improve efficiencies in the production or sales process.

Financial Leverage Metrics

Financial leverage refers to a company’s use of borrowed capital in order to acquire assets and increase its return on investments. Through balance sheet analysis, managerial accountants can provide management with the tools they need to study the company’s debt and equity mix in order to put leverage to its most optimal use.

Performance measures such as return on equity, debt to equity, and return on invested capital help management identify key information about borrowed capital, prior to relaying these statistics to outside sources. It is important for management to review ratios and statistics regularly to be able to appropriately answer questions from its board of directors, investors, and creditors.

Accounts Receivable (AR) Management

Appropriately managing accounts receivable (AR) can have positive effects on a company’s bottom line. An accounts receivable aging report categorizes AR invoices by the length of time they have been outstanding. For example, an AR aging report may list all outstanding receivables less than 30 days, 30 to 60 days, 60 to 90 days, and 90+ days.

Through a review of outstanding receivables, managerial accountants can indicate to appropriate department managers if certain customers are becoming credit risks. If a customer routinely pays late, management may reconsider doing any future business on credit with that customer.

Budgeting, Trend Analysis, and Forecasting

Budgets are extensively used as a quantitative expression of the company’s plan of operation. Managerial accountants utilize performance reports to note deviations of actual results from budgets. The positive or negative deviations from a budget also referred to as budget-to-actual variances, are analyzed in order to make appropriate changes going forward.

Managerial accountants analyze and relay information related to capital expenditure decisions. This includes the use of standard capital budgeting metrics, such as net present value and internal rate of return, to assist decision-makers on whether to embark on capital-intensive projects or purchases. Managerial accounting involves examining proposals, deciding if the products or services are needed, and finding the appropriate way to finance the purchase. It also outlines payback periods so management is able to anticipate future economic benefits.

Managerial accounting also involves reviewing the trendline for certain expenses and investigating unusual variances or deviations. It is important to review this information regularly because expenses that vary considerably from what is typically expected are commonly questioned during external financial audits. This field of accounting also utilizes previous period information to calculate and project future financial information. This may include the use of historical pricing, sales volumes, geographical locations, customer tendencies, or financial information.

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MEDICAL OFFICE: Practice Embezzlement Schemes

DR. DAVID EDWARD MARCINKO; MBA MEd CMP®

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Without proper internal accounting controls, a medical practice [MD, DO, DPM, DDS, DMD] might never reach peak profitability. Internal controls designed and implemented by the physician-owner help prevent bad things from happening.

Embezzlement protection is the classic example. However, internal controls also help ensure good things happen most of the time; according to colleague Dr. Gary Bode; MSA, CPA.

Some Common Embezzlement “Old School” Schemes

Here are some ‘old-school” embezzlement schemes to avoid; however the list is imaginative and endless.

  • The physician-owner pocketing cash “off the books”. To the IRS, this is like embezzlement to intentionally defraud it out of tax money.
  • Employee’s pocketing cash from cash transactions.  This is why you see cashiers following protocol that seems to take forever when you’re in the grocery check out line. This is also why you see signs offering a reward if he/she is not offered a receipt. This is partly why security cameras are installed.
  • Bookkeepers writing checks to themselves.  This is easiest to do in flexible software programs like QuickBooks, Peachtree Accounting and related financial software. It is one of the hardest schemes to detect. The bookkeeper self-writes and cashes the check to their own name; and then the name on the check is changed in the software program to a vendor’s name.  So a real check exists which looks legitimate on checking statements unless a picture of it is available.
  • Employees ordering personal items on practice credit cards.
  • Bookkeepers receiving patient checks and illegally depositing them in an unauthorized, pseudo practice checking account, set up by themselves in a bank different from yours. They then withdraw funds at will. If this scheme uses only a few patients, who are billed outside of the practice’s accounting software it is hard to detect.  The doctor must have a good knowledge of existing patients to catch the ones “missing” from practice records. Monitoring the bookkeeper’s lifestyle might raise suspicion, but this scheme is generally low profile and protracted. Checking the accounting software “audit trail” shows the required original invoice deletions or credit memos in a less sophisticated version of this scheme.
  • Bookkeepers writing payroll checks to non-existent employees. This scheme works well in larger practices and medical clinics with high seasonal turnover of employees, and practices with multiple locations the podiatrist-owner doesn’t visit often.
  • Bookkeepers writing inflated checks to existing employees, vendors or subcontractors. Physician-owners should beware if romantic relationships between the bookkeeper and other practice related parties.
  • Bookkeepers writing checks to false vendors. This is another low profile, protracted scheme that exploits the podiatrists-owner’s indifference to accounts payable.

Assessment

Operating efficiency, safeguarding assets, compliance with existing laws and accuracy of financial transactions are common goals of internal managerial and cost accounting in medical practice.

CONCLUSION

Hopefully, the above is a good review to prevent common practice embezzlement schemes. Unfortunately, it is a never-ending endeavor.  

References: Marcinko, DE: Dictionary of Health Economics and Finance. Springer Publishing Company, NY 2007.

Related Textbooks: https://tinyurl.com/579rex23

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ACCOUNTING: Financial v. Managerial [CPA v. CMA]

By Staff Reporters

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Financial accounting and managerial accounting are two distinct branches of the accounting field, each serving different purposes and stakeholders. Financial accounting focuses on creating external reports that provide a snapshot of a company’s financial health for investors, regulators, and other outside parties. Managerial accounting, meanwhile, is an internal process aimed at aiding managers in making informed business decisions.

Objectives of Financial Accounting

Financial accounting is primarily concerned with the preparation and presentation of financial statements, which include the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement. These documents are meticulously crafted to reflect the company’s financial performance over a specific period, providing insights into its profitability, liquidity, and solvency. The objective is to offer a clear, standardized view of the financial state of the company, ensuring that external entities have a reliable basis for evaluating the company’s economic activities.

The process of financial accounting also involves the meticulous recording of all financial transactions. This is achieved through the double-entry bookkeeping system, where each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts, ensuring that the accounting equation remains balanced. This systematic approach provides accuracy and accountability, which are paramount in financial reporting. CPA = Certified Public Accountant.

Objectives of Managerial Accounting

Managerial accounting is designed to meet the information needs of the individuals who manage organizations. Unlike financial accounting, which provides a historical record of an organization’s financial performance, managerial accounting focuses on future-oriented reports. These reports assist in planning, controlling, and decision-making processes that guide the day-to-day, short-term, and long-term operations.

At the heart of managerial accounting is budgeting. Budgets are detailed plans that quantify the economic resources required for various functions, such as production, sales, and financing. They serve as benchmarks against which actual performance can be measured and evaluated. This enables managers to identify variances, investigate their causes, and implement corrective actions. Another objective of managerial accounting is cost analysis. Managers use cost accounting methods to understand the expenses associated with each aspect of production and operation. By analyzing costs, they can determine the profitability of individual products or services, control expenditures, and optimize resource allocation.

Performance measurement is another key objective. Managerial accountants develop metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of various business processes. These performance metrics are crucial for setting goals, evaluating outcomes, and aligning individual and departmental objectives with the overall strategy of the organization. CMA = Certified Managerial Accountant

Reporting Standards in Financial Accounting

The bedrock of financial accounting is the adherence to established reporting standards, which ensure consistency, comparability, and transparency in financial statements. Globally, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are widely adopted, setting the guidelines for how particular types of transactions and other events should be reported in financial statements. In the United States, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which serve a similar purpose. These standards are not static; they evolve in response to changing economic realities, stakeholder needs, and advances in business practices.

For instance, the shift towards more service-oriented economies and the rise of intangible assets have led to updates in revenue recognition and asset valuation guidelines. The convergence of IFRS and GAAP is an ongoing process aimed at creating a unified set of global standards that would benefit multinational corporations and investors by reducing the complexity and cost of complying with multiple accounting frameworks.

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What is Medical Practice FINANCIAL RATIO ANALYSIS?

BY DR. DAVID E. MARCINKO MBA MEd CMP®

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Financial ratio analysis typically involves the calculation of ratios that are financial and operational measures representative of the financial status of a clinic or medical practice enterprise.  These ratios are evaluated in terms of their relative comparison to generally established industry norms, which may be expressed as positive or negative trends for that industry sector. The ratios selected may function as several different measures of operating performance or financial condition of the subject entity.

CITE: https://www.r2library.com/Resource/Title/0826102549

Common types of financial indicators that are measured by ratio analysis include:

  • Liquidity. Liquidity ratios measure the ability of an organization to meet cash obligations as they become due, i.e., to support operational goals. Ratios above the industry mean generally indicate that the organization is in an advantageous position to better support immediate goals.  The current ratio, which quantifies the relationship between assets and liabilities, is an indicator of an organization’s ability to meet short-term obligations.  Managers use this measure to determine how quickly assets are converted into cash.
  • Activity. Activity ratios, also called efficiency ratios, indicate how efficiently the organization utilizes its resources or assets, including cash, accounts receivable, salaries, inventory, property, plant, and equipment.  Lower ratios may indicate an inefficient use of those assets.
  • Leverage. Leverage ratios, measured as the ratio of long-term debt to net fixed assets, are used to illustrate the proportion of funds, or capital, provided by shareholders (owners) and creditors to aid analysts in assessing the appropriateness of an organization’s current level of debt.  When this ratio falls equal to or below the industry norm, the organization is typically not considered to be at significant risk.
  • Profitability. Indicates the overall net effect of managerial efficiency of the enterprise. To determine the profitability of the enterprise for bench marking purposes, the analyst should first review and make adjustments to the owner(s) compensation, if appropriate.  Adjustments for the market value of the “replacement cost” of the professional services provided by the owner are particularly important in the valuation of professional medical practices for the purpose of arriving at an ”economic level” of profit.

The selection of financial ratios for analysis and comparison to the organization’s performance requires careful attention to the homogeneity of data. Bench marking of intra-organizational data (i.e., internal bench marking) typically proves to be less variable across several different measurement periods.

However, the use of data from external facilities for comparison may introduce variation in measurement methodology and procedure. In the latter case, use of a standard chart of accounts for the organization or recasting the organization’s data to a standard format can effectively facilitate an appropriate comparison of the organization’s operating performance and financial status data to survey results.

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Comprehensive Financial Planning Strategies for Doctors and Advisors: Best Practices from Leading Consultants and Certified Medical Planners™

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EXPLAINED: Medical “Bottle Neck” Accounting

VARIANCE AND BOTTLE-NECK ACCOUNTING

DR. DAVID E. MARCINKO MBA MEd CMP

Any healthcare organization usually has several processes involved in the utilization of its patient services. Unfortunately, bottlenecks may arise which constrain the amount of services any given healthcare entity can deliver. 

Accounting Definition 

An accounting “bottleneck” is a process that has a low output and limits total healthcare entity revenues. If a medical business entity wants to increase sales or revenues, it has to solve its bottleneck [ie., access management] problems. 

Traditional Variance Analysis Dilemma 

With traditional variance analysis [VA], managers and administrators analyze the difference between budgeted patient revenues and actual revenues. Typically, differences between budgeted revenues and actual revenues are analyzed as seen in the example below.

Initially postulated by Horngren and Foster for manufacturing processes, VA can now be modified for medical business entity use. 

Example: 

  Patient Service Units   Contract/UCR Fee    
Budgeted sales revenues 10,000,000 * 1,23 = $ 12,300,000
Actual sales revenues 9,000,000 * 1,21 = $ 10,890,000
          -/- —————-
Total variance         $ 1,410,000
Traditional Assessment
Actual patient revenues were lower than budgeted; and the unfavorable patient sales volume variance was (9,000,000 – 10,000,000) * $ 1,23 = – $ 1,230,000. 

  

The actual patient revenue price was lower than budgeted as the unfavorable price variance was: ($ 1,21 – $ 1,23) * 9,000,000 = – 180,000.

Traditional variance analysis however does not point out which of the processes were bottlenecks, which caused the negative volume variance.Thus, a normal variance analysis can’t be used to solve bottlenecks in a clinic, hospital or medical practice.

Enter B-N Accounting

In bottleneck accounting however, managers and healthcare administrators determine the bottlenecks in a medical organization.And, a bottleneck accounting report shows which process were bottlenecks occur and how much money is lost in each bottleneck.

Example:

Bottleneck Patient Sales Revenues $ 800,000
Bottleneck Dep. II $ 350,000
Other Bottlenecks $ 80,000
  + —————-
Total Volume Variance $ 1,230,000

Conclusion: 

The managerial accounting modification for “bottlenecks” not only points out the bottlenecks to solve, it also shows which bottleneck is to be handled first.

And so, what are your thoughts on this accounting machination? Please comment.

References: Horngren, C. T. and G. Foster, ‘Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis’, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1987. 

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Understanding Medical Cost Accounting

A Subset of Managerial Accounting

By Dr. David E. Marcinko MBA CMP®

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Managerial and medical cost accounting is not governed by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) as promoted by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) for CPAs. Rather, a healthcare organization costing expert may be a Certified Cost Accountant (CCA) or Certified Managerial Accountant (CMA) designated by the Cost Accounting Standards Board (CASB), an independent board within the Office of Management and Budget’s (OMB) Office of Federal Procurement Policy (OFPP).

The Cost Accounting Standards Board

CASB consists of five members, including the OFPP Administrator who serves as chairman and four members with experience in government contract cost accounting (two from the federal government, one from industry, and one from the accounting profession). The Board has the exclusive authority to make, promulgate, and amend cost accounting standards and interpretations designed to achieve uniformity and consistency in the cost accounting practices governing the measurement, assignment, and allocation of costs to contracts with the United States.

Codified at 48 CFR

CASB’s regulations are codified at 48 CFR, Chapter 99.  The standards are mandatory for use by all executive agencies and by contractors and subcontractors in estimating, accumulating, and reporting costs in connection with pricing and administration of, and settlement of disputes concerning, all negotiated prime contract and subcontract procurement with the United States in excess of $500,000. The rules and regulations of the CASB appear in the federal acquisition regulations.

North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) codes are used to categorize data for the federal government.  In acquisition they are particularly critical for size standards.  The NAICS codes are revised every five years by the Census Bureau.  As of October 1, 2007, the federal acquisition community began using the 2007 version of the NAICS codes at www.census.gov/epcd/www/naics.html

Cost Accounting Standards

Healthcare organizations and consultants are obligated to comply with the following cost accounting standards (CAS) promulgated by federal agencies:

  • CAS 501 requires consistency in estimating, accumulating, and reporting costs.
  • CAS 502 requires consistency in allocating costs incurred for the same purpose.
  • CAS 505 requires proper treatment of unallowable costs.
  • CAS 506 requires consistency in the periods used for cost accounting.

The requirements of these standards are different from those of traditional financial accounting, which are concerned with providing static historical information to creditors, shareholders, and those outside the public or private healthcare organization.

AssessmentTwo Doctors

Functionally, most healthcare organizations also contain cost centers, which have no revenue budgets or mission to earn revenues for the organization.  Examples include human resources, administration, housekeeping, nursing, and the like.  These are known as responsibility centers with budgeting constraints but no earnings.  Furthermore, shadow cost centers include certain non-cash or cash expenses, such as amortization, depreciation and utilities, and rent. These non-centralized shadow centers are cost allocated for budgeting purposes and must be treated as costs http://www.CertifiedMedicalPlanner.org

MORE:  CASE MODEL EOQ 1

Conclusion

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“Inter-Company Eliminations” – Healthcare Managerial Accounting

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